In the 1950's and 1960's, most schools started between 8:30-9:00 a.m. and many of us barely stayed awake when classes were boring. Today, half the high schools in the U.S. start at 7:30 or earlier, with many school buses leaving by 6:30. New research shows that chronic sleep deprivation is the result, and this has serious implications for adolescents' ability to learn, to drive safely, and to get along with others, as well as their smoking and drug abuse.

    The Board on Children, Youth and Families of the National Academy of Sciences held an all-day workshop on Sept. 22, bringing in scientists to talk about how sleep deprivation affects adolescents. Perhaps because their research shows that adults are also likely to nap during a boring speech, the presentations were more animated than the usual academic fare, and their findings were compelling to anyone who works with adolescents. This is a summary of some of the most interesting findings from the workshop, and one of the recent summary articles is listed above as a source of additional information.

    Learning. As anyone who has fallen asleep during a lecture knows, sleep deprivation interferes with the ability to learn. Even if a student is awake, he or she is less able to pay attention, concentrate, or remember. The experts agree; people who have enough sleep at night do not nap during the day, even during a boring lecture, and they are more likely to remember what was taught.

    Safety. The research proves that sleep deprivation is similar to alcohol in its effect on judgement, reaction time, and driving skill. And as with alcohol, the teen or adult impaired from lack of sleep is unlikely to realize it. According to David Dinges of the University of Pennsylvania, a one-second delay in reaction time, which is a common problem for the sleep-deprived driver, can result in a 60 mph car traveling 88 feet. Sleep deprivation is a problem for all drivers, but especially inexperienced ones. "Sleep attacks"- unintentionally falling asleep for a few seconds - are common for the sleep-deprived, and can be fatal if the person involved is driving rather than sitting in class or watching TV.

    Smoking, Drinking, and Drugs. The same impaired judgement that can cause car accidents can also result in making bad choices. Adolescents are easily swayed by peer pressure, and lack of sleep makes them even less able to "just say no" or think ahead about negative consequences. Many teens depend on caffeine, nicotine, and other stimulants to stay awake. Colas are not the only popular stimulant: many soft drinks, such as Mountain Dew and Surge, have even more caffeine. This sets up a vicious cycle; by the end of the day, many adolescents are wide awake, and so they go to sleep too late despite their need to get up early.

    Conflicts with Family and Friends. Everyone knows that tired babies are cranky. Research shows that tired adolescents and adults are, too. This can contribute to constant tension between adolescents and other family members, road rage, gang fights, family violence, and other serious problems.

    Just how tired are most teenagers? In a recent sleep study, Dinges and his colleagues allowed adults to sleep only 6 hours per night, and found that after a week they were as impaired as adults getting 8 hours of sleep per night who had gone without sleep for 48 hours straight. Since teens need more sleep than adults, Dinges believes that teens would be even more impaired.

    What is causing sleep deprivation in adolescents? Schools that start too early are only part of the problem, but they are a big part. During adolescence, natural circadian rhythms cause most kids to stay up later, and to want to sleep later. This can start even in elementary school for some children; for example, African American girls tend to mature earlier.

    Jobs can also be a problem; 34% of high school students are employed, according to the Department of Labor. Teens who work longer hours find it difficult to have time for school, homework, jobs, socializing, and sleep, and sleep may seem to be the last priority. These findings are consistent with research indicating that high school students with jobs often do not do well at school.

    You don't need multivariate statistics to get the picture: kids need to get up before dawn to get to school on time. They have trouble paying attention in class and may be short-tempered with teachers and other students. After school, they may have a job, sports, or go to their unsupervised homes (where they have many options that are more appealing than doing homework). After dinner, they may finally do their homework (they feel awake and productive, but they unfortunately aren't, so it takes longer), continue their part-time jobs delivering pizza or working at the mall, or be with their friends. By 9 p.m., when they should be going to sleep to get the 9 hours of sleep they need, they are wide awake and anyway, no self-respecting adolescent wants to go to bed that early. So they stay up until 10:30 or later (perhaps much later), virtually guaranteeing that they will be sleep deprived when they get up at dawn the next day.

    Adults who are aware of these problems can help by trying to discourage late night jobs or activities, discourage the excessive use of caffeine and other stimulants, especially at night, and helping students schedule their activities in ways that maximize the chances of getting enough sleep.

References:

Workshop on the Sleep Needs, Patterns, and Difficulties of Adolescents
Board on Children, Youth, and Families
National Academy of Sciences
Summary at www.national-academies.org/cbsse/bocyfweb.nsf/web/current_activities
Or call (202) 334-1935 for information.

The Consequences of Insufficient Sleep for Adolescents
Ronald Dahl, M.D.
Phi Delta Kappan
January 1999
Fax request to Dr. Dahl for free copy to (412) 624-0223

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Schools and Sleep Deprivation

    Efforts to change high school times to allow teens to get more sleep are having the desired effect, according to a study in Minnesota.

    The ongoing study shows that starting high school at 8:40 instead of 7:30 resulted in students reporting getting more sleep, feeling more alert, and seeing fewer classmates falling asleep at their desks. Most students reported going to sleep at the same time that they used to, and sleeping an additional hour in the morning.

    High school guidance counselors reported that almost all the students liked the later starting time and that referrals of students who feel stressed from academic pressure are "significantly down." The counselors stated that the school climate is more "calm" and "positive" and students' attitudes and behaviors seemed to have improved. School attendance rate for first period was improved. Teachers were less rushed in the morning, and had time to make photocopies or do other preparatory work before class.

    Although the results were very positive, not every child benefitted from the change. Some students reported going to sleep later, and therefore getting the same amount of sleep as before. Some students complained about having less time for sports after school or less time for work feeling more awake during the first hour of school.

Reference:
University of Minnesota
Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement.
Available at http://carei.coled.umn.edu/Programs/time/start_time/sst.htm

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Coping Among Asian American and Pacific Islander Youth

Why do some Asian American teens do so well despite poverty and minority and immigrant status? A new study attempted to answer that question by interviewing 55 working class Asian American and Pacific Islander youth between 10-18 whose parents were affected by the closing of three sugar plantations in Hawaii. The youth and their parents each participated in 2-hour interviews, and other information such as school grades were also collected.

These were poor families with at least one parent who had recently lost their job or been notified that they soon would lose their job. One in five of the parents had less than a high school education and 46 percent held a high school diploma. Almost two-thirds of the youth described themselves as of mixed Asian/Pacific Island heritage, one in four of the parents were immigrants, usually from the Philippines. The results showed that the coping strategies the kids used predicted how well they did socially and in school, whereas the parenting practices and social networks predicted whether the kids had behavior problems or engaged in delinquent behavior.

The strategies that were most helpful to these youth were seeking social support from friends or others, or taking direct action. In contrast, youth that tended to blame others or get angry were more likely to be involved in delinquent behavior. Coping strategies were not related to other problem behaviors, however, such as temper tantrums or depression.

Parents who used harsh discipline, such as yelling and physical punishment, had children who had temper tantrums or were depressed. Authoritative parents, who use positive reinforcement, monitor their children's activities, and express support and affection, had children who made friends easily, felt good about themselves, and had good social skills. Parenting practices did not predict children's delinquent behavior, however.

If youth described their community as supportive, they were less likely to be involved in delinquent activities. Having a supportive community was especially helpful for kids whose families were under more financial strain.

This study is quite small and does not seem to be a random sample even among the unemployed workers. Nevertheless, it is a useful study because if provides information about a minority group that is often overlooked in larger national surveys. The fact that the results are similar to those for other minority groups suggests that many of the factors that help youth cope with stressful lives are the same regardless of race and ethnicity. The focus on youth whose working class parents have just lost their jobs is also a good way to evaluate how kids are doing when they are under stress, although in this case the job loss is recent and it is not clear what will happen to these youth if a parent's unemployment continues for a long period of time.


Reference:
Psychosocial Adjustment in Asian American/Pacific Islander Youth
Barbara DeBaryshe, PhD, Sylvia Yuen, PhD, and Ivette Rodriguez Stern, MSW
Adolescent & Family Health, Summer 2001, pgs 63-71
Available from Dr. DeBaryshe, University of Hawaii, Center on the Family, 2515 Campus Road, Honolulu, HI 96822

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Adults Really Do Matter to Kids

    The press release for this study announced that "Mentors Help Adolescents Stay Away from Drugs" but the study doesn't exactly support either the headline or the study's title.

    There is plenty of other research supporting the idea that mentors help kids, but this study actually shows the impact of "a parent or trustworthy adult" and 51 percent were mothers, 5 percent were fathers, 3 percent were adult siblings, and 17 percent were other relatives. I don't think that is what most people have in mind when they hear the word "mentor."

    So, although the study shows that adults are important influences on adolescents' lives, it is impossible to tell from this study whether adults that are not family members are influential.

    But wait -- the term "adolescents" is also a little off base, since the study participants were between the ages of 12-23. They weren't a random sample, two-thirds were girls, and all were from New Jersey. They were selected from individuals receiving outpatient medical care, and were, fortunately, from diverse racial, ethnic, and socio-economic backgrounds.

    Two-thirds of the "adolescents" stated that they had an adult whom they could usually turn to for help and advice, and those who stated that were less likely to participate in risky behaviors such as carrying a weapon, use of illegal drugs, smoking five or more cigarettes per day, or sex with more than one partner in the last six months. The impact of having an adult role model was statistically significant even when race, age, sex, and family constellation was statistically controlled. Having an adult to turn to did not influence recent alcohol use.

    Overall, this is a good study, but also a good example of how important it is to get behind the headlines to see what a study is really all about.

Reference:
The Potential Role of an Adult Mentor in Influencing High-Risk Behaviors in Adolescents
Sharon Beir, MD and colleagues
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine
April 2000, pp. 327-331
Available at http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/issues/v154n4/rfull/poa9162.html

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Preventing and Treating Kids' Depression Without Drugs

    Instilling optimism and teaching kids to have more positive thoughts can prevent depression years later, according to two long-term studies of young adults and children in the U.S., recently described by Martin Seligman, PhD, at a meeting sponsored by the National Institutes of Health.

    Seligman uses "positive psychology" to enhance optimism, courage, honesty, self-understanding, and interpersonal skills, instead of focusing on the damage of past traumas. Seligman is one of the country's foremost researchers on depression, a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania, and former president of the American Psychological Association.

    The goal is to use inner resources as a buffer against setbacks in life, so that the individual does not become depressed, according to Seligman. "It's not about how to heal; it's about how to have a great life," he explained. If you think that failures "last forever and undermine everything you try to do -- you'll get depressed" according to Seligman. "But if you can view them as temporary or affecting only a small part of your life, you won't get depressed."

    One study is based on questionnaires given to students who were admitted to the university. The students who scored in the lowest quartile for optimism were randomly assigned either to a workshop to develop skills to boost their optimism, or to no treatment. The students were taught to recognize their own negative thoughts about themselves and to argue against these thoughts as though they were from an external critic.

    The 126 students who participated in the workshops and the 119 students who were not enrolled in the workshops were then followed up for 8-10 years. Those who participated in the workshops in college were half as likely to have episodes of moderate depression (13 percent) compared to students who were not given the opportunity to participate (27 percent). The students who participated in the workshops were also half as likely to have anxiety disorders, compared with the other students.

    In a second study, Seligman and his associates offered similar workshops for 67 10- to 12-year-old children who had symptoms of mild depression, and compared them to 47 similar children who were not offered the workshops. Two years later, less than half as many children (22 percent) who attended the workshops were mildly or moderately depressed compared to 44 percent of those who were not offered the workshops.

    In a third study, University of Pennsylvania researcher Dr. David Yu reported similar results 3 months after offering similar workshops to 104 10- to 12-year-olds in Beijing, compared to 116 children who could not attend.

    Seligman points to the studies as proof that it is possible to prevent depression from developing in school-age children and college students, and that the skills learned will continue to help kids for years afterwards. In contrast, most drug studies evaluate patients for a relatively short period of time.

Reference:
Positive Psychology Halved Depression in Kids
Mary Ann Moon
Clinical Psychiatry News 28(5): p. 29, 2000

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Feeling Down and Acting Tough: Girls and Depression

    Research on juvenile crime and delinquency tends to focus on boys, for good reason, but the danger is that we assume that what is true for boys is probably true for the "few girls" who "act like boys" by engaging in such behavior.

    According to a longitudinal, federally funded study entitled the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, these assumptions are probably wrong. Unlike the boys, the girls commit crimes are often depressed.

    During childhood, few boys or girls are depressed, but there is a sharp rise in depression among girls during adolescence, and depression remains a bigger problem for females for the rest of their lives. The feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness associated with depression are not consistent with the public's image of the "tough girls" who commit crimes, but this new study suggests that many of these girls may be acting out in response to negative feelings about themselves.

    The study included 754 girls, ages 12 and 15, who described themselves and their behaviors in interviews. Many admitted criminal behavior, especially those who seemed depressed. Forty-two percent of non-depressed girls committed crimes against other individuals, compared to 82 percent of the girls who were mildly and moderately depressed. Two out of every five of the non-depressed girls reported that they had committed crimes against property, compared to 68 percent of those who were mildly or moderately depressed.

    The interview also included self-reported serious aggressive behaviors, which were less common than criminal behavior. Based on the answers to several questions, serious aggressive behaviors were reported by 58 percent of the depressed girls compared to only 13 percent of the non-depressed girls.

    These differences between depressed girls and other girls were statistically significant even when race and socio-economic class were taken into account. However, there were age and racial differences in criminal and aggressive behavior as well. Among the 12-year-old girls, at least one in every four reported committing at least one property crime: 25 percent of whites, 27 percent of Latinas, and 33 percent of African Americans. Crime increased with age: for the 15-year olds, property crimes were committed by 60 percent of whites, 54 percent of Latinas, and 55 percent African Americans.

    There were greater racial differences in admitting crimes against other people. Among 12-year-olds, 19 percent of Latinas, 23 percent of whites, and 47 percent of African Americans said they had committed a crime against another person. Among 15-year-olds, these crimes were admitted by 50 percent of the Latinas, 49 percent of whites, and 70 percent of African Americans.

    Serious aggressive behaviors were reported by 9 percent of white 12-year olds, 4 percent of Latinas, and 19 percent of African Americans. Among 15-year-olds, serious aggressive behaviors were reported by 13 percent of whites, 24 percent of Latinas, and 22 percent of African Americans.

    Not all the racial differences were statistically significant, but the African American girls were significantly higher in crimes against another person in both age groups, and the 15-year-old white girls were highest in property crimes.

    The findings have important implications for parents and adults who work with youth, who may be better able to help depressed girls and girls who commit crimes, if they understand how depression and feelings of worthlessness can result in aggressive behaviors and criminal activities.

Reference:
Adolescent Girls: The Role of Depression in the Development of Delinquency
Dawn A. Obeidallah and Felton J. Earls
National Institute of Justice, July 1999
Available free at www.ncjrs.org/txtfiles1/fs000244.txt or call (800)-851-3420

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These articles are based on Diana Zuckerman's monthly Research Watch columns that appeared in Youth Today in issues from November 1999 through March 2003, and were reprinted with permission. Youth Today is a publication of the American Youth Work Center, 1200 17th St., NW, Washington, D.C. 20036. (800) 599-2455. E-mail: youthtoday@aol.com