National Center For Policy Research (CPR) For Women & Families

Violence


News You Can Use on Kids and Violence

By Diana Zuckerman, Ph.D.

    There is a lot of research on violence and kids, and this information has important implications for parents, youth workers, and policy makers. Here are summaries of recent research findings, with information about how you can obtain copies of the original articles describing the research. All are written by Diana Zuckerman, president of CPR for Women & Families, and are based on her Research Watch column in Youth Today, unless a different citation is noted.


Child Abuse and Domestic Violence
. When Relatives Care for Kin
. Father Figures are the Answer, But What is the Question?
. Linking Spouse and Child Abuse
. Witnessing Violence at Home



Teen Suicide
. How Childhood and Youth Experiences Link to Suicide
. Research on Teen Suicide
. Smoking, Drinking, Marijuana, Family Problems, and Suicide




Dating and Violence:


Dating Violence Inspires Other Problems

A study of dating violence published in September 2003 found a link with high-risk behaviors such as drug use.

The study is based on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, known as Add Health, a survey conducted in the homes of more than 4,600 youths ages 11-21, who were first interviewed in 1995 and followed up approximately one year later.

This recent study focused on “intimate partner abuse,” which was defined as verbal abuse or mild forms of physical abuse, such as insulting you, treating you disrespectfully in front of others, swearing at you, threatening you with violence, pushing or shoving you, or throwing something at you that could hurt you. More severe physical or sexual abuse were excluded, and the survey did not measure if the person interviewed was abusive to others.

Most (69%) of the students were white, 14% black and 13% Hispanic. Thirty-eight percent had no intimate partners when they were interviewed in 1995, and 32% had none when interviewed a year later. Some 273 boys (12%) and 302 girls (14%) reported abuse by at least one intimate partner between the first interview in 1995 and the second one approximately one year later.

Those who reported abuse starting between the first and second interview were more likely to report illicit substance use, antisocial behavior, violent behavior, suicidal behavior and depressed mood at the initial interview and one year later. Illicit substances included tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana. Antisocial behavior included theft, lying to parents, running away from home, destruction of property, and similar behaviors. Violence in the past year included a physical fight, injuring someone, a group fight, threatening someone with a weapon, using a weapon in a fight, shooting or stabbing someone. Suicidal behavior was measured in terms of the frequency of thinking about suicide or attempting it.

The impact of dating violence differed for boys and girls. For boys, abuse starting after the first interview led to a greater decline in antisocial behavior, even though that behavior was still greater than for non-abused boys. For girls, abuse starting after the first interview was associated with increased levels of illegal substance use.

Not surprisingly, when the researchers adjusted for social class and demographic factors, reporting greater levels of abuse and having greater numbers of sexual partners was associated with more depression for both girls and boys.

What can adults do with these findings? Some adults may observe the kinds of abuse measured by this study. Those who don’t might consider how other symptoms they observe in teens, such as depression or drug use, might be warning signs that dating violence is happening.

Reference:

Longitudinal Effect of Intimate Partner Abuse on High-Risk Behavior Among Adolescents
Timothy A. Roberts, MD, Jonathan D. Klein, M.D., M.P.H., and Susan Fisher, Ph.D.
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Vol. 157, September 2003, pgs. 875-881

 


Is Stalking More Common Than We Think?

As more and more attention has been paid to violence against women and girls, research has started to include stalking as a potential problem. A new study in Criminology & Public Policy, shows that stalking disrupted the lives of 13 percent of a national sample of college women during a 7-month time period.

Stalking only rarely resulted in physical harm, but stalking was frightening and disturbing, lasting an average of 2 months and resulting in frequent unwanted contact. Nine out of ten of the almost 4500 young women in the study were fulltime students and 86 percent were undergraduates.

Stalking was defined as repeated, unwanted pursuit behaviors (such as following, watching, phone calls, e mails, or other contacts) that “seemed obsessive and made you afraid or concerned for your safety.” The students reported nine kinds of stalking behaviors, and on average the student reported that a stalker pursued her in three different ways. Three out of four events involved phone calls, three in ten were letters, and one in four was e mail. Most students reported that the stalking took place two to six times a week. Half the women reported being stalked for two months or more.

Almost all (98 percent) of the stalkers were male, four out of five were acquainted with the victim, and almost half of those who were acquainted were a boyfriend or former boyfriend. Most of the others were classmates, “friends” or co-workers. And most of the stalking was not reported to the police or to campus law enforcement officials. Most thought the incidents would not be considered serious enough for police to pursue.

The authors of the article focus primarily on persuading the reader that stalking is a serious problem and contemplating how college campuses can help reduce this problem. Youth workers may think about this research in other ways. Although not the most important problem facing youth today, stalking is upsetting because it makes girls feel vulnerable, and it is apparently more common than we realize. It takes many forms, in addition to physically following girls. By asking girls and boys about stalking and other unwanted attention, youth workers can encourage boys to stop as well as provide the support girls apparently need to report stalking or help them do something to stop it.

Reference:
Being Pursued: Stalking Victimization in a National Study of College Women
Bonnie Fisher, Francis Cullen, Michael Turner
Criminology & Public Policy, Vol 1, March 2002, pgs. 257-308
Available from Dr. Fisher at Bonnie.Fisher@uc.edu



Teen Mothers as Targets of Violence

It is well-known that teen pregnancy puts girls at risk for a lifetime of poverty, but a new study shows that teen mothers are also at high risk of being abused by their boyfriends or husbands in the months after their baby is born.

A study of all new mothers who were 18 and younger at a University of Texas medical center found that many reported being slapped, hit, kicked or physically hurt by a husband or boyfriend. The worst time was in the first three months after childbirth, when 21 percent reported intimate violence, compared to a low of 13 percent 18-to-24 months after childbirth. Although the percentage of girls abused decreased over time, the severity of abuse increased -- 40 percent of those who were abused reported that it was severe during the first three months, compared to 62 percent during the 18-to-24 month period.

The 570 girls in the study were approximately equally divided among Mexican Americans, African Americans and whites. Approximately one-third reported being married (legally or under common law). They averaged 16.8 years of age. Fifteen percent were high school graduates or held a GED, 15 percent had previously given birth, and 14 percent were employed during the last three months of pregnancy.

There were racial differences in abuse: The highest rates of abuse were during the first three months for Mexican Americans (23 percent) and African Americans (24 percent), whereas the highest rates for whites were 18 months after childbirth (22 percent). The frequency of assaults did not vary much over time, with between 16 and 22 percent of those who experienced intimate partner violence reporting that it was frequent.

The abuse did not necessarily start after the baby was born; in fact, girls that were abused while pregnant were at higher risk than were other girls. Of the 60 girls who were victims of physical abuse during pregnancy, 43 percent also were harmed during the first three months after childbirth. Of those who weren’t hurt during pregnancy, 19 percent were harmed during those first three months.

Abuse did not necessarily continue during the 24 months of the study, but by the time the study was over 41 percent had reported being abused by her husband, ex-husband, boyfriend, or ex-boyfriend at some point.

The study has important implications for adults who work with teen mothers and their boyfriends or husbands. Since teen parenthood is assumed to be difficult, youth workers wouldn’t necessarily suspect that violence is causing the stress or other warning signs they notice among new teen parents. This study indicates how important it is to ask teen parents what is going on in their lives, to ask about and watch for signs of physical abuse, and to be available to talk about issues other than those specific to parenthood. The first few months after the baby is born may be especially essential, but apparently the risks of new parenthood continue for years.


Reference:
Prevalence and Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Among Adolescent Mothers During the Postpartum Period
Samantha Harrykissoon, M.P.H., Vaughn Rickert, Psy.D. & Constance Wiemann, Ph.D.
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, April 2002
Copies from Dr. Wiemann at Dept. of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, 6621 Fannon St, CC610.01, Houston, TX 77030-2399 or cwiemann@bcm.tmc.edu



Boyfriends, Violence, and Teen Pregnancy

Many low-income girls are at risk for domestic violence, as well as pregnancy due to birth control sabotage, according to a new study by the Center for Impact Research (formerly the Taylor Institute) in Chicago.

The Center is well known for its research on the link between welfare and domestic violence among adults, but this study shows that many low-income teenage girls have similar experiences. The study was based on a survey of 474 young mothers on welfare, ranging between 11 and 21, and in-depth interviews with 16 of these girls and young women. The average age of the girls was 18, and most were between 15 and 17 when their first child was born. On average, their boyfriends were three and a half years older. Since the study was conducted on Chicago's west side and south side, almost all (95 percent) were African American, and 4 percent were Hispanic.

Most (81 percent) of the girls state that they currently have a boyfriend, and on average they describe the relationship as lasting 2.7 years. The boyfriends range in age from 16 to 44, with an average of 22. Only about half the boyfriends were employed.

Most (55 percent) of the girls had experienced some type of violence at the hands of their boyfriends during the last 12 months, and only 27 percent of these experienced only verbal violence. Forty-one percent of them reported severe physical violence, such as beatings, rape, injury, and assault.

A girl's educational attainment was unrelated to whether she was a victim of domestic violence, but the boyfriends who were more educated were less likely to engage in the most violent behaviors.

The girls' efforts to avoid pregnancy were sabotaged by boyfriends' words and behavior. Almost half (48 percent) of the girls reported their boyfriends saying things like "you want to use birth control so you can sleep around with other men" or "You would have my baby if you really loved me." Fourteen percent stated that their boyfriends wouldn't let them use birth control, or forced them to have sex when they were not using any protection. For example, one girl reported that her boyfriend flushed her birth control pills down the toilet. Other girls reported using depo provera shots to avoid pregnancy, so their boyfriends wouldn't find out.

Two-thirds of the girls who reported that their boyfriends were violent towards them also reported birth control sabotage. This was almost twice as high as the 34 percent of girls who reported birth control sabotage who were not victims of violence. Verbal sabotage was almost that high (62 percent compared to 31 percent) and behavioral sabotage was reported by 22 percent of the victims of violence and 5 percent of the other girls.

The highest level of verbal sabotage was rare among boys ages 20 and younger, but was used by 20 percent of the boyfriends who were 26 and older.

Similarly, the more violent boys were more likely to sabotage the girls' efforts to go to school or to a job, by tearing up her books or homework, keeping her up all night, or promising to babysit or take her to school or work and not showing up.

Jody Raphael, Executive Director of the Center for Impact Research, tells us that any parents, teachers, or other adults who want to help teens avoid pregnancy need to understand the relationship between unprotected sex and domestic violence, and should talk to the girls about it. She also warned that long-term relationships are not necessarily a good sign for these girls; in some cases the men are "looming" in an unhealthy way over the girls lives.


Reference:
Domestic Violence and Birth Control Sabotage: A Report from the Teen Parent Project
Mary Ellen Konieczny
Center for Impact Research, 926 North Wolcott, Chicago, Ill 60622
Available free from Ctrimpact@att.net or call 773 342-0630

Dating Violence: A Two Way Street, But Girls Are Hurt Most

This new study of students between 13 and 18 indicates that dating is often a time of conflict and abuse, primarily against girls. Questionnaires were distributed to 635 students in 23 gym classes in a large midwestern high school. The classes were the only segregated classes that the school would make available for research, and it is assumed that the students would be typical of students in the school.

Approximately one-third of all students, male and female, reported some experience with physical violence in a dating relationship. If you stop with that statistic, it seems like violence is no different for girls than for boys. However, by asking questions about the type of violence, the severity, whether it hurt, and what caused it, it became clear that the "violence" against boys is frequently a clap, pinch, or bite as the girls "fought back" against boys who tried to initiate sexual activity or were violent toward them.

For example, girls were much more likely to report being punched or forced to engage in sexual activity against their will. Boys, on the other hand, were more likely to be pinched, slapped, scratched, and kicked. More than half (56 percent) of the boys reported that they were not hurt at all, more than half reported laughing at the experience, and one-third reported that they ignored it. In contrast, almost half (48 percent) of the girls reported that the boy hurt her a lot or caused bruises or SHE needed medical attention as a result of the abuse.

The boys and girls were surprisingly consistent in blaming the aggression on the boys. Girls reported that dating violence was initiated by the boys 70 percent of the time, and boys reported that the girls initiated abuse only 27 percent of the time. However, the boys were more likely to say that both they and their partner were to blame. Of the boys who said they had been physically attacked by a girl, 17 percent reported it was because they had been making sexual advances. Many more (37 percent) of the girls who were attacked said it was because the boy had been making SEXUAL advances.

Twice as many boys as girls (21 percent compared to 10 percent) reported that their own jealousy was the reason for the violence against them. More than one-third (37 percent) of the boys said they were drunk when they were physically attacked, compared to only 9 percent of the girls.

The bad news for parents and other adults is that they are unlikely to be told about these incidents, making it difficult to deal with the problem. Less than 3 percent of boys or girls reported the incident to an authority figure, such as a teacher, police, or counselor, and only 6 percent reported it to a family member. More than 30 percent told no one at all, and 61 percent told a friend.

On the other hand, these incidents are not always taking place in private. Forty-two percent of the boys and 43 percent of the girls reported that the incidents occurred in a school building or on school grounds. And although most of the incidents took place when the couple was alone, another boy or girl or group of people was present nearly half the time. That means that there are bystanders witnessing the abuse who need to do more to stop it, either by showing their concern or getting help.


Reference:
Gender and Contextual Factors in Adolescent Dating Violence
Christian Molidor, Ph.D., Richard Tolman, Ph.D., and Jennifer Kober, M.S.W
The Prevention Researcher
February 2000, Vol 7, No. 1
For copy call Jan Bartunek (800) 929-2955 ext. 19



Teen Love as a Four Letter Word

Why are some teen romances so violent? Seven of the 10 articles of this journal, which is published by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, attempt to answer that question.

In their introductory article, "When Love is Just a Four Letter Word," the editors point out that researchers who study romantic relationships and those that study victimization have little contact with each other. Unfortunately, there is so much overlap that the two need to be studied together. This special section is intended to begin to bridge that gap.

In "Dating Experiences of Bullies in Early Adolescence," Jennifer Connolly and her colleagues found that bullies in grades five through eight tended to start puberty earlier, start dating earlier, and reported less emotionally supportive relationships with friends. They were also more likely to report being the perpetrator and the victim of physical and social aggression, such as slapping, kicking, choking, beating up, punching, threatening with a knife, spreading rumors, and "getting even." The almost 200 self-identified bullies and 200 non-bullies were mostly middle-class Canadians.

In a study of adolescent girls who had been abused between the ages 6-15, Jennie Noll and her colleagues evaluated the girls’ relationships when they were between the ages of 12 and 25. In their article, "Social Network Constellation and Sexuality of Sexually Abused and Comparison Girls in Childhood and Adolescence," Noll reports that abuse has a long-term negative impact. Girls who had been abused grew up to be more preoccupied with sex and more likely to have their first voluntary sexual intercourse at an earlier age, although their attitudes about sex were not different from girls who had not been abused. In a finding that may surprise many youth workers, girls who had more friendships with males, whether or not they had been abused, tended to have sex earlier, have more sexual partners, and were less likely to use birth control. Early sexual dating experiences also predicted the likelihood of at least one abortion in later years.

Adults were found to be important influences in the lives of these girls, whether they were abused or not. For example, girls who have high-quality relationships with female adults (whether mothers, teachers, or other relatives or role models) are less likely to engage in casual sex. Sexually abused girls who report happier relationships with adult men (relatives, teachers, etc.) are less likely to grow up to be preoccupied with sex. In contrast, the quality of relationships with girls their own age did not influence girls’ later sexual attitudes or activities.

Anna Smalley Flanagan and Wyndol Furman did a study of high school seniors and college undergraduates, which found that coerced sexual activity was quite common. In "Sexual Victimization and Perceptions of Close Relationships in Adolescence" more than half the college girls reported some form of sexual victimization; for example, unwanted kissing or fondling resulting from a man’s continual arguments (47 percent) or physical force (16 percent), or unwanted sexual intercourse resulting from a man’s continual arguments (28 percent), drugs or alcohol (10 percent), or physical force (13 percent). Most of the offenders were boyfriends or lovers (41 percent), casual dates (23 percent), or nonromantic acquaintances (37 percent). Those who had been victimized tended to have more dating partners.

When the same authors studied high school seniors, they found that almost half reported some kind of sexual victimization, including unwanted kissing or fondling resulting from a man’s continual arguments (35 percent) or physical force (6 percent), or unwanted sexual intercourse subsequent to continual arguments (27 percent), alcohol or drugs (8 percent), or physical force (4 percent). The proportion of perpetrators that were boyfriends, casual dates, or nonromantic acquaintances was almost identical to the college women.

In both age groups, more than two-thirds of the women reported more than one experience of being sexually victimized, sometimes by the same person. The authors were especially disturbed to see that the first victimization usually occurred in high school; in fact, the percentage of high school seniors who reported experiencing unwanted sexual intercourse was similar to the percentage among college women.

These compelling findings have important implications for teens and the adults who care for and about them. Coercion, whether verbal or physical, is clearly a common element of teen "romances," and teens and adults could help prevent these incidents and support the victims through their advice, support, and information for high school students. What’s still lacking, unfortunately, is good research to guide us on the most effective way to do this.


Reference:
Victimization and Romantic Relationships in Adolescence
Special section of Child Maltreatment, November 2000, Vol 5, No. 4
Guest editors: Candice Feiring and Wyndol Furman
Available for $25 from www.sagepub.com or 805 499-9774



Do Virginity Pledges Delay Teen Sex?

Virginity pledges have received a lot of attention in recent years. New research published in the Guttmacher Report on Public Policy shows that virginity pledges can help delay sexual activity, but only under certain circumstances.

In this new study, based on the national Adolescent Health survey (nicknamed "Add Health"), virginity pledges were linked to a delay in sexual activity, especially among 15-17 year olds, and especially at schools where the minority of students take the pledge. In other words, the pledge to stay a virgin works because it sets a relatively small group of students apart and provides a network of support for them. As a result, virginity pledges won’t work for a majority of students in a school. And, not surprisingly, the pledges only work if the students chose to make a pledge, not if they are required to do so.

Pledges have another shortcoming: they place students at higher risk for sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy because those who break a pledge are one-third less likely to use contraceptives. This makes sense: if teens have decided not to have sex, they will not be prepared if they unexpectedly change their mind.

The study also found that students who report that their parents are warm, caring and supportive are more likely to delay sex. Those who are very satisfied with their relationship with their mother are less likely to get pregnant and more likely to use contraception or delay sexual activity.

Perhaps most important and least surprising, the study indicates that teen sex is most likely for teens that date more often. Although that seems obvious, it has important implications because dating is seen as a natural and desirable part of growing up. This study suggests that teachers, parents, youth workers, and other adults that are concerned about teen pregnancy might want to find ways to encourage teens to participate in non-dating group activities.

The article is a summary and interpretation of data that were presented in other, more technical research reports. The Alan Guttmacher Institute supports comprehensive sex education, which includes teaching about contraceptives in addition to abstinence. This article is an effort to explain that even though virginity pledges can be an effective tool to delay teen sex, such pledges are not a viable pregnancy prevention strategy for most teens.

Reference:
Recent Findings from the "Add Health" Survey: Teens and Sexual Activity
Cynthia Dailard
The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy, August 2001, pgs 1-3



 Dating Violence and Foster Care

Many children in foster care have experienced violence, and there is good reason to be concerned that they may become victims or perpetrators of violence in the future. A recent study suggests that teenagers in foster care may be at risk for violence in their dating relationships.

Youth who were participating in a one-time presentation on dating violence that was part of an Independent Living Skills program in three California counties were asked to complete a voluntary survey. Nine of every ten agreed, approximately two-thirds of whom were juniors or seniors.

Of the 85 teens who had started dating, almost half (48%) reported involvement in some type of dating violence, either as a victim or perpetrator. Even more, 60%, reported witnessing physical, sexual, or verbal violence in family of origin. Surprisingly, 42% of those who experienced dating violence were both victim and perpetrator. Girls were more likely than boys to report being victims (37% Vs 11%), but equally likely to report inflicting harm (16% Vs 15%).

Dating violence included physical violence, sexual violence, threats, or verbal abuse. Most of the teenagers who had been victims of violence stated that they did not report it to an adult, but 70% of the victims and 60% of the perpetrators reported it to someone.

Statistical analyses were used to determine the traits that predicted whether a teen would be a victim of violence. Being a girl, being a perpetrator, and having more than three dating partners predicted being a victim. Witnessing violence was not a statistically significant predictor of being a victim of violence.

More than 80% of those in violent relationships continued to date the same person after violence occurred. The proportion was even higher, 91%, for those who experienced physically violent relationships. Violence recurred in more than 60% of the cases.

Since only 13 teens admitted harming a date physically or forcing them to perform sexual acts, there were too few to determine statistically significant predictors.

The teens who participated in this program are probably not typical of all foster children, since they signed up to attend a presentation on dating violence. The researchers point out that the proportion reporting violence in their dating relationships, although high, is similar to other studies on teenagers. However, the proportion staying in an abusive relationship was higher than those reported in studies of a general population of teenagers, but similar to a study of teens from abusive homes.

The youth had sought out help by attending the talk, and when asked if they wanted more information or wanted to participate in a more intensive program to learn how to avoid violent relationships, more than two-thirds said yes to each. The most important message for youth workers may be that there are teenagers who want help with these problems, and youth workers need to find ways to provide that help.

Reference:
Foster Youth and Dating Violence
Melissa Jonson-Reid and Lisa Bivens, Washington University
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 14, No. 12, December 1999, 1249-1262
Available from Dr. Johnson-Reid at: 1 Brookings Dr., Campus Box 1196, St Louis, MO 63130

These articles are based on Diana Zuckerman's monthly Research Watch columns that appeared in Youth Today in issues from November 1999 through November 2004, and were reprinted with permission. Youth Today is a publication of the American Youth Work Center, 1200 17th St., NW, Washington, D.C. 20036. (800) 599-2455. E-mail: youthtoday@aol.com.

 

Top of Page
Top







National Research Center for Women & Families
1701 K St. NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20006. (202) 223-4000



Design by: MoonLight Enterprises
© NRC & MoonLight Enterprises. All rights reserved.
Contents are copyrighted by their respective owners.